Pre-Colonial Africa: Empires and Kingdoms
Before the 1880s Africa was home to empires, kingdoms and city-states linked by long-distance trade. This page lists the major pre-colonial African states by region, with their approximate dates.
Last updated: September 2026
Before European colonisation, Africa was home to hundreds of states, from great empires such as Mali, Songhai, Ethiopia and Kanem-Bornu to kingdoms such as Kongo, Asante, Buganda and Great Zimbabwe, as well as city-states, chiefdoms and societies without central rulers. Many were linked by long-distance trade across the Sahara, along the Nile and around the Indian Ocean. Until the 1880s, Europeans held only coastal footholds.
Ancient Africa
- Ancient Egypt (c. 3100–30 BCE) — unified under the pharaohs, it built the pyramids of Giza and lasted until the Roman conquest
- Kush (Nubia) (c. 2500 BCE–350 CE) — kingdoms of Kerma, Napata and Meroë in today's Sudan; Kushite kings ruled Egypt as its 25th Dynasty
- Carthage (c. 814–146 BCE) — Phoenician-founded trading power in today's Tunisia, destroyed by Rome
- Aksum (Axum) (c. 100–940 CE) — trading empire in today's Ethiopia and Eritrea that adopted Christianity in the 4th century
West African Empires
A succession of great empires dominated the West African Sahel, growing wealthy on the trans-Saharan gold and salt trade:
- Ghana Empire (c. 300–1200 CE) — in present-day Mauritania and Mali, not modern Ghana, which took its name at independence in 1957
- Mali Empire (c. 1235–1670) — founded by Sundiata Keita; its ruler Mansa Musa made a famous pilgrimage to Mecca in 1324, and Timbuktu became a centre of Islamic learning
- Songhai Empire (c. 1430–1591) — the largest of the three, centred on Gao; defeated by a Moroccan army at Tondibi in 1591
- Kanem-Bornu (c. 700–1893) — around Lake Chad, in today's Chad, Niger, Nigeria and Cameroon
- Hausa city-states (Kano, Katsina, Zaria) — trading centres of northern Nigeria, later absorbed by the Sokoto Caliphate (1804–1903), one of the largest states in 19th-century Africa
- Oyo and Benin — Yoruba and Edo kingdoms of southern Nigeria; Benin was famous for its bronzes, looted by a British expedition in 1897
- Dahomey (c. 1600–1894) — kingdom in today's Benin, conquered by France
- Asante (Ashanti) Empire (c. 1700–1901) — gold-rich forest kingdom in today's Ghana
Central African Kingdoms
The forest and savanna zone of Central Africa produced kingdoms organised around long-distance trade in copper, ivory and, later, enslaved people:
- Kingdom of Kongo (c. 1390–1914) — its ruler converted to Christianity in 1491; the kingdom was weakened by the Portuguese-led slave trade and civil wars
- Ndongo and Matamba — kingdoms in today's Angola, where Queen Nzinga resisted the Portuguese in the 17th century
- Luba and Lunda empires — in today's southern DR Congo, Angola and Zambia
- Kuba Kingdom — in today's DR Congo, famed for its art and textiles
Eastern and Southern African States
The Indian Ocean coast supported a chain of Swahili city-states, while the interior produced inland kingdoms:
- Ethiopian Empire (c. 1270–1974) — ruled by the Solomonic dynasty, which claimed descent from the kings of Aksum; it was never colonised
- Swahili city-states — Kilwa, Mombasa, Malindi, Lamu and Zanzibar, trading with Arabia, Persia, India and China
- Great Zimbabwe (c. 1100–1450) — capital of a gold-trading state, with the largest stone ruins in sub-Saharan Africa
- Mutapa Kingdom (c. 1430–1760) — successor state in today's Zimbabwe and Mozambique
- Buganda, Bunyoro, Rwanda and Burundi — kingdoms of the African Great Lakes
- Zulu Kingdom (c. 1816–1897) — built by Shaka; it defeated the British at Isandlwana in 1879 before being conquered
- Merina Kingdom (c. 1540–1897) — unified most of Madagascar in the 19th century before French conquest
North African Dynasties
North Africa was part of the wider Mediterranean and Islamic worlds. After the Arab conquests of the 7th century it was ruled by a succession of Arab, Berber and Turkish dynasties, including the Umayyads, Fatimids (who founded Cairo in 969), Almoravids, Almohads, Marinids, Mamluks, Ottomans, Saadis and the Alaouites, who still reign in Morocco. By the 19th century Egypt, Libya, Tunisia and Algeria were nominally Ottoman, while Morocco was independent.
How Much of Africa Did Europe Control Before 1880?
Very little. Around 1870 roughly 10% of Africa was under European rule: French Algeria (conquered from 1830), the British Cape Colony and Natal, Portuguese coastal settlements in Angola and Mozambique, and trading forts in West Africa. The Boer republics of the Transvaal and Orange Free State were independent. This changed rapidly during the Scramble for Africa.
Frequently Asked Questions
What were the largest pre-colonial African empires?
The largest included the Songhai and Mali empires in West Africa, the Sokoto Caliphate in northern Nigeria, Kanem-Bornu around Lake Chad and the Ethiopian Empire in the Horn of Africa.
Is the old Ghana Empire the same as modern Ghana?
No. The Ghana Empire lay in today's Mauritania and Mali, several hundred kilometres north-west of modern Ghana. The Gold Coast took the name Ghana at independence in 1957 to honour the old empire.
Who was Mansa Musa?
Mansa Musa was ruler of the Mali Empire in the early 14th century. His pilgrimage to Mecca in 1324, during which he gave away large amounts of gold, made Mali famous across the Islamic world and Europe.
What was Great Zimbabwe?
Great Zimbabwe was the stone-built capital of a southern African state that flourished from about 1100 to 1450, trading gold and ivory with the Swahili coast. Modern Zimbabwe is named after it.